Labor Relations in Different Organizations in The United Arab Emirates Essay

Work Relations in Different Organizations in The United Arab Emirates - Essay Example The accompanying paper examinations, sorts of work allows, the various classifications of infringement, and the human privileges of workers in the UAE. A glance at the Dubai bank likewise gives contribution on the above issues (Allah 1978, p. 78). The start of 2011 saw the presentation of work allows in the UAE by means of the Cabinet Resolution No. 25 of 2010. They incorporate; work move, brief, low maintenance adolescent people and staff supported by family work grants. The work move license covers non-nationals working in the UAE moved between associations inside the UAE of which must be enrolled by the Ministry of Labor. Impermanent work licenses, then again, spread both national and non-national faculty chipping away at an undertaking for under a half year. Low maintenance work grants spread people working low maintenance for hardly any hours contrasted with all day laborers who work for additional hours (Allah 1978, p. 156). The quantity of hours determined by the Ministry of L abor for all day business incorporates eight hours barring mid-day breaks; along these lines, hours worked not exactly the plot eight hours comprise low maintenance business. This permits both national and non-national staff to take up more than one occupation not at all like previously, whereby, individuals were just permitted to have each activity in turn. In any case, changes of the mind boggling subtleties of this grant are as yet in progress. This is on the grounds that different issues continue emerging with the experiencing of various achievements. Adolescent persons’ licenses spread youthful people between 15 to 18 years looking for work inside associations. Licenses for staff supported by their kinfolk spread dependants tried to work for an association. Which means ostracizes at long last have the chance to go about as their dependants supports. This permits their family to procure work licenses notwithstanding them not being qualified for any of the above recorded g rants (Allah 1978, p. 198). In this way, the presentation of various kinds of work grants made it simpler for the Dubai Bank Human Resource administrators to enlist staff in a simpler manner. For instance, they had the option to benefit from the licenses for staff supported by their family. This is on the grounds that; they utilized these licenses as motivating force while requesting the administrations of ostracizes. These licenses permit dependants of an ostracize to get business effectively on the grounds that getting a work grant stops to be an obstruction. In this manner, Dubai bank authorities keep on grasping the slow changes executed by the Ministry of Labor (Pawan 2007, p.77). With the ongoing worldwide downturn, infringement of work guidelines in the UAE expanded significantly. Subsequently, the Ministry of Labor thought of approaches which tried to address these infringement. Organizations like the Dubai bank, in this manner, straightened out their work connection approac hes to oblige the reconsidered guidelines from the Labor Ministry. The Ministry made three classifications of infringement known to people in general. Dark focuses granted by the Ministry demonstrated the earnestness of these infringement. The more the dark focuses earned by an association, the extreme the punishments forced. Punishments were either fines or the association would be minimized in extreme cases. The latter’s inconvenience happened when a firm obtained in excess of 100 dark focuses at whatever year (Pawan 2007, p.119).â

Clover valley free essay sample

I am keeping in touch with you in light of your interests in regards to the market test on the new cups and transporters that Clover Valley is acquainting with the client. The motivation behind this examination is to check whether the new bundling merits the change and if the customer will acknowledge the new change. It will likewise let us know whether the new six compartment holder will be successful. I do concur that the new transporter ought to be tried and it ought to be tried in different regions that are not our rivals. I likewise accept that it ought to be n our market just as our rivals. One of the most significant pieces of testing another item or configuration ought to consistently begin in view of our rivals. Realizing what our rivals are offering and how well it is acknowledged by the customer ought to be the premise of our choice of choosing if it ought to be tried and attempted. We will compose a custom exposition test on Clover valley or then again any comparable point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Knowing our market and what is out there gives us a decent lead on the best way to affect our shoppers positively. This prompts why we ought to consider and incorporate our rivals client sees just as our non-rival client sees Just for correlation. By excluding our non-contending stores, we are just ruining our capacities to completely observe what will truly sell and what wont sell. May I propose that we just breaking point to one contender? This will give us more cash for our financial plan and we wont toss all our cash into a few contenders when just one will give us what we need. In the event that a test is fundamental, what ought to be the standards for progress or disappointment? I accept the central matter to press ought to be the manner by which deals are affected. More often than not, deals can increment by the vibe of a bundle for a thing, alone. A great deal of the occasions if the ackaging to a thing is introduced well, clients will by as a result of the look. Studies have been led on the presence of an item and what focuses on the shopper. In that revelation, if the thing moved towards ladies and the bundling was rich, they would be the customer well on the way to buy the item. This truly helps in characterizing our objective market. I accept there are four significant variables that ought to be taken a gander at to decide the achievement or disappointment of an item. The first I will talk about is Cost. Cost is a colossal issue with regards to evaluating another item. We will have the option to bring down the expense of our testing by constraining ourselves to one contender and shopping our rivals. The following component is Market Share. In the event that our clients are fulfilled, at that point our piece of the overall industry would increment thus. The third factor is dealing with. At the point when a bundle is anything but difficult to deal with (open and close) at that point we will have more accomplishment with it. I accept we will have the option to do this by consolidating the six packs together. The fourth and last factor is Reusable. Is our item recyclable? In the time of green innovation, it is significant that we can reuse our item. This likewise helps witn cost! The second thing I needed to talk about is the way valuable the proposed test will be in tending to the administration issue. Are there any progressions that ought to be made with the goal that we dont commit the error from the item side and the board side of it? The appropriate response is yes! What changes would we be able to make so as to stay away from potential catastrophe of the item? The executives should meet up as a group and agent out assignments that will lead us the correct way. When there is a collaboration behind item testing, there will be achievement. I think by hearing everyones point of view on the ew test will make it broadened and fruitful. The proposed test will be valuable for expanding the deals and it will likewise help in recognizing botches in the group that have been made beforehand. As I referenced hearing everyones point of view on the new style of bundling I think will likewise open the entryway for inventiveness in our representatives. My last thing I might want to discuss is the Evaluation of Cost/estimation of the examination. What will it cost and will it be justified, despite all the trouble is the principle concern and question. Assessment shouldn't be costly. A decent dependable guideline is to assess it between five to en percent of the complete financial plan. This will incorporate the time the staff spent on assessment, cash based expenses just as the estimation of time. We will concentrate on questions, for example, need to know and ideal to know. That will curtail the expense of the assessment. Here is the means by which I will set up cost structure: 1 . Pay and advantages for program staff who will be included. 2. Assets to pay an outside evaluator 3. Travel costs 4. Specialized Tools (postage, phone, and so on ) 5. Printing of studies, reports and so forth 6. Supplies and hardware (PCs) Once I am ready to get your endorsement, I will begin this right away. All things being equal, I ould like to recommend the thought on which we are taking a shot at now to actualize it as our new promoting system. I trust it will be an awesome accomplishment for the development and deals of our organization. Notoriety will support us and we will be en route to a truly necessary revelation! This will likewise open up such a significant number of imaginative roads for our organization and permit our representatives to grow their intuition into new zones! It will assist us with meeting up as a group and assemble dependable associations with our rivals just as our organization. At long last, I need to state a major thank you for understanding our needs and provide such incredible guidance! Genuinely, Vince Roth

Word of the Week! Sojourn Richmond Writing

Word of the Week! Sojourn Richmond Writing Many of my readers will soon take a vacation or, if British, a holiday. Some will study abroad or go on sabbatical (a future Word of the week). All of these temporary absences count as a sojourn, a nice word for this time of year. Im currently finishing my sojourn to J.R.R. Tolkiens Middle Earth, one I have taken every decade since my early teens. Usage is really old for this word. The OED records several Fourteen Century examples, most with variant spellings. The etymology sketched out includes a few Romance languages but not any Latin term, though at Etymology Online theres an hypothesis that our word comes from the vulgar Latin  subdiurnare  to spend the day. All definitions refer to either a temporary stay somewhere, the place itself, or merely a digression. Thus for me, my year in Madrid was a sojourn before starting graduate school, yet Segovia nearby was itself a quiet sojourn from the hectic life of the Spanish metropolis. Graduates, what of your gap year before the grind of working life? You will never forget that sojourn. For the rest of you, as the humidity in Virginia rises in June and continues through August, where will your sojourn be? How long will you be away? And what do you bring back from that temporary change of scenery? Finally, can   you find a sojourn in the pages of a book or while watching a film? At present, my sojourn is with Frodo Baggins in Middle Earth, as real an imaginary place as any in fiction. Keep in mind that at the end of Lord of the Rings, Frodo makes not a sojourn but a permanent departure for the uttermost West, across the ocean. He will never return. But I hope you will! Please nominate a word or metaphor useful in academic writing by e-mailing me (jessid -at- richmond -dot- edu) or leaving a comment below. See all of our Metaphors of the Month  here  and Words of the Week  here. Map of Middle Earth courtesy of Wikipedia Commons.

The Organizational Behavior Practices of Redbox - 1667 Words

The Organizational Behavior Practices and Techniques of Red Box Automated Retail LLC by CHARLES MCNALLY, ANNA MONLYN- WALKER AND CHRISTY NELSON A Paper Submitted to Dr. Eren Ozgen in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for MGT 3371 ZA1 Principles of Management Term 3 Troy University – eCampus 02/26/2010 Contents Introduction 3 Company Mission, Strategy, Goals 4 Company Core Values 5 Information on CEO 6 S.W.O.T. Analysis 7 Corporate Culture 8 Organizational Structure 9 Conclusion 10 Bibliography 11 Introduction (M.M.) It’s so convenient! You’ve just finished your weekly grocery shopping at your local big box store and you’re on your way out the door with a cart full of all the bargains you found and†¦show more content†¦Lowe said the company is always looking for new and innovative ways in which they could improve customer service. Redbox’s competitive advantage is the fact that they have surpassed companies in revenue as well as in their advantage in number of rental locations for customer availability. Most of all their competitive advantage is the fact that they have an alternative which other movie rentals do not; kiosks are placed in McDonald’s fast foods, grocery stores, and discount stores. Customers can purchase or rent online and pick up at any kiosk. They have a physical presence greater than 17,000 locations through their retail partners. Their locations continue to grow. One could wonder whether or not Redbox care for their employees after announcing in Downers Grove, Illinois the outsourcing of their Call Center to third parties in Texas and in Canada in February 2010. The closing will leave two hundred call center employees without jobs which are about 8% of the company’s workforce. There were questions raised as to whether or not it was a business strategy or declining economy. I believe there is some concern for public image but overall the concern is for Redbox to profit and like any other business their success is their priority. In 2009 there was a concern from three major studios, Century Fox, Warner Bros. and Universal, that DVD kiosks were going to kill sales and rentals. IndividuallyShow MoreRelatedThe Shocking Closing Of Blockbuster Video Stores1536 Words   |  7 Pagescompetition. Several organizational behavior issues are prevalent in the time leading up to these decisions made by Blockbuster leaders. This paper will addres s the following research questions: Was there a correlational relationship between the leadership’s decision-making abilities and the events that led up to the closing? If so, what was the impact? How did the operating business practices of Blockbuster impact employee perception? What was the impact to the organizational culture during the periodRead MoreNetflix and Disruptive Innovation2004 Words   |  9 PagesBackground Who is the king of the movie rental industry? Is it Blockbuster, Redbox or Netflix? Blockbuster was the king of VHS rental with their brick and mortar stores for more than 20 years. Netflix was the first to market with the idea of shipping DVDs directly to consumer’s homes but are now focusing their resources and attention to online streaming. Netflix is slowly getting out of the DVD and Blu-ray rental game by raising the prices of their DVDs and Blu-rays. Netflix is spending moreRead MoreBusiness Failure Analysis/Leading Organizational Change1610 Words   |  7 PagesAnalysis/Leading Organizational Change Organizational Leadership/531 July 15, 2013 Business Failure Analysis/Leading Organizational Change Team D’s assignment consisted of two parts; first we selected a business that failed and one that has succeeded within the last 5 years and identified their objectives, visions, and missions. After our research we determined the indicators of the business failures and successes. In our paper we will describe how specific organizational behaviorRead MoreBlockbuster Declares Bankruptcy2749 Words   |  11 PagesBlockbuster Declares Bankruptcy Yvonne Dedmore MGT 435 – Organizational Change Robert Hamamoto September 19, 2011 Shortly before their 25th anniversary, Blockbuster files for bankruptcy protection with a Chapter 11 petition. The failing company couldn’t compete in today’s market against Netflix, Redbox, Apple, and other internet-based businesses that provided mail-order rentals or digital streaming. Their business model needed to be revamped to stay competitive. This paper will take a lookRead MoreThe Future of Video Rental2563 Words   |  11 Pagesstrategic plan to grow the business over the next three years. Using SWOT analysis and strategic planning an organization performs organizational forecasting similar to advice given to a US hockey player once made concerning hockey, â€Å"skate where the puck is going to be, not where it has been.† (Schwartz, n.d.) Strategic planning is a systematic way of planning for the organizational future but upon the data based decisions from the SWOT analysis. The distinctive aspect between Netflix and their competitionRead MoreThe Burke-Litwin Model Essay examples1727 Words   |  7 Pagespeople overestimate the value of what they have and underestimate the value of what they may gain by giving that up.† The Burke-Litwin Model What is it? According to Burke (2011), The Burke-Litwin Model was the result of some studies on organizational climate conducted by George Litwin and others in the 1960s. Around the 1980s was the time when the model started to develop because Burke and Litwin started to work with some companies that were going through some changes, the worked with CitibankRead MoreThe Fall of Blockbuster Video3496 Words   |  14 Pagesdirection, customer dissatisfaction, fiscal irresponsibility and a lack of innovation that ultimately led to the demise of the video rental â€Å"Kingpin† also known as Blockbuster Video. Introduction: Organizational strength relies on its infrastructure and strategic management. The study of organizational behavior within any organization is intriguing. Success relies on many factors that involve leadership, strategic vision and a motivated team poised for the challenges of the day to day operations of theRead MoreMkc1 Study Guide Essay8083 Words   |  33 PagesHow does cultural diversity affect marketing? A. By defining what is right and what is wrong in marketing B. By requiring tailored marketing strategies C. By creating a need for a new marketing technologies D. By studying different cultural practices 2. What element should marketing managers consider when scanning the competitive environment? A. The human mind B. Transfer price C. Substitute products D. The distribution channel 3. When a group of retailers and wholesalers of a particularRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOrganizational Behavior This page intentionally left blank Organizational Behavior EDITION 15 Stephen P. Robbins —San Diego State University Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame i3iEi35Bj! Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services:Read MoreRetail Management30153 Words   |  121 Pagesthey target. Other types of retail store include: * Automated Retail stores are self service, robotic kiosks located in airports, malls and grocery stores. The stores accept credit cards and are usually open 24/7. Examples include ZoomShops and Redbox. * Big-box stores encompass larger department, discount, general merchandise, and warehouse stores. * Convenience store - a small store often with extended hours, stocking everyday or roadside items; * General store - a store which sells

The Rise of Social Media and Its Impact on Mainstream...

WORKING PAPER e rise of social media and its impact on mainstream journalism: A study of how newspapers and broadcasters in the UK and US are responding to a wave of participatory social media, and a historic shi in control towards individual consumers. Nic Newman September 2009 Contents Executive summary and key conclusions 1. Framing the debate 2. Mainstream media motivations, doubts and dilemmas 2.1 Definitions and motivations 2.2 BBC 2.3 Guardian and Telegraph 2.4 New York Times 2.5 CNN 2.6 Comparisons of activity 2.7 Lessons and conclusions 3. Changing coverage 3.1 Iranian elections 3.2 G20 case study 4. Changing journalistic practice; telling stories with the audience 4.1 Robert Peston (BBC): Peston’s Picks blog 4.2†¦show more content†¦6. Social recommendation has begun to play a significant role in driving traffic to traditional news content. Most organisations are devoting significant resources to exploit social networks to drive reach. Over 2 time, social media sites could become as important as search engines as a driver of traffic and revenue. The issues and conclusions are framed within a wider debate about the importance of these developments to the changing shape of mainstream media organisations, to levels of civic engagement, debates about quality, trust and accuracy, and to discussions about the practice and future of journalism itself. KEYWORDS: social media; social networks; blogs; user generated content; online; newspapers; broadcasting; future journalism; Facebook; Twitter 3 1. Framing the debate Ten years ago, an influential McKinsey report1 concluded that new technologies were set to increase our capacity to interact by a factor of between two and five. They argued that our enhanced interactive capacity would ‘create new ways to configure businesses, organise companies, and serve customers’. These developments are not just playing out between businesses, they are profoundly impacting almost every sphere of life – with journalism on the front line. In developed societies the adoption of email, instant messagingShow MoreRelatedSocial Media And Its Impact On Journalism1742 Words   |  7 PagesSocial media has had a huge impact on the way that journalism is practiced and the way that the general public perceive news in the present day. This dissertation aims to identify and explore the use of the different social media platforms, focusing on the impact that the rise of social media has had on journalism practices. In addition, this paper will examine the public’s responses to the news that they receive through social media platforms. Examples of social media platforms that this dissertationRead MoreMedia Bias Of The United States1389 Words   |  6 Pagesthe fact that media in the United States is indeed biased. The mainstream media particularly all seem to have a majority of the same viewpoints with little variation on their beliefs, but I must disagree when you say all journalists and writers are biased because, â€Å"they push their agenda in news and entertainment.† Media bias comes from a multitude of factors, who enters careers in writing and journalism, where journalists get information from, and how audiences receive news and media. When lookingRead MoreThe Impact of the Rise of Citizen Journalists for Mainstream Media1582 Words   |  7 Pageschanges and new media rise gradually. Citizen journalists can be regarded as a representative of new media. As the concept is relatively new, it is not yet completely defined. Generally speaking, citizen journalists refer to members of the public who are not trained or employed as professional journalists for a living to produce and circulate photos, videos, news and views (Stabe, 2006). In recent years, the rise of citizen journalists has an impact on mainstream media. Mainstream media, which sometimesRead MoreNews Writing Style Ethics And Journalism1283 Words   |  6 Pages(disambiguation). Journalism Simons Perskaart DOM.jpg News Writing style Ethics Objectivity News values Attribution Defamation Editorial independence Journalism school Index of journalism articles Areas Arts Business Data Entertainment Environment Fashion Medicine Politics Science Sports Technology Trade Traffic Weather World Genres Advocacy Analytic Blogging Broadcast Citizen Civic Collaborative Comics-based Community Database Gonzo Immersion Investigative Literary Muckraking Narrative New Journalism Non-profitRead MoreNews Writing Style Ethics And Journalism2027 Words   |  9 Pages(disambiguation). 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Base on my research, I hold a different opinion - social media is not only just snapping photos and watching funny videos, but it also increases the generation of informational content and citizen participation in political discussions. In early 2011, thousands of Syrian, especially youth from labor unions, indented to risk their lives to protest against the authoritarian government. By August 2015, more than 250,000Read MoreThe Informational Model Of Journalism Essay1679 Words   |  7 Pagesinformational model of journalism? First, we may be producing too much information. With developments in media technology, we have created an â€Å"information glut† that makes news and information â€Å"a form of garbage.† Scientists, technicians, managers, and journalists pile up so much information that adds to problems and anxieties of everyday life. There is too much unchecked data and not enough thoughtful discussion. 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Environmental Pollution Free Essays

Vi Lap Tran WRT 990 First Draft Environmental pollution Society is being civilized every time; technology is also being invented every day. Thus, human life’s quality has been developing. However, the increasing of environmental issues isn’t still solved, and one of the most important problems is the pollution. We will write a custom essay sample on Environmental Pollution or any similar topic only for you Order Now It’s defined, â€Å"Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i. e. physical systems or living organisms† (en. wikipedia. org). Many countries have a meeting annually to discuss how to decline and settle this problem. Many investigate of a lot scientists about the causes of the pollution are listed in statistics; the approaches are stated, but there is no specific solution to be united. There are three main causes of environmental pollution which are much mentioned; they are air pollution, soil contamination, and water pollution. Smog hanging over cities is the most familiar and obvious form of air pollution. But there are different kinds of pollution—some visible, some invisible—that contribute to global warming. Generally any substance that people introduce into the atmosphere that has damaging effects on living things and the environment is considered air pollution. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is the crucial pollutant that is warming Earth. Though living things emit carbon dioxide when they breathe, carbon dioxide is widely considered to be a pollutant when associated with cars, planes, power plants, and other human activities that involve the burning of fossil fuels such as  gasoline and natural gas. Carbon dioxide also damages the ozone layer. Soil contamination frequently occurs in field, or the zone near nuclear plants. Soil contamination results when hazardous substances are spilled or buried directly in the soil. Chemical pesticides, which are always used in farming, cause serious consequence. Additionally, the radioactive leakage from the nuclear plants can also harmfully affect the broad ground. As a result, raising plants will be affected; they grow slowly and have little nutrition than the others. Beside that, contaminants in the soil can adversely impact the health of animals and humans when they ingest, inhale, or touch contaminated soil, or when they eat plants or animals that have themselves been affected by soil contamination. Water pollution can be defined â€Å"the addition of harmful chemicals to natural water† (dictionary. reference. com). There are four types of water pollution, such as: toxic substance, organic substance, thermal pollution, ecological pollution. Specifically, toxic substance, including herbicides, pesticides, and industrial compounds, is the most common matter. For instance, the situation at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan remains very serious, and according to the news from washingtonpost. com, â€Å"Leaked water sampled from one unit Sunday had 100,000 times the radioactivity of normal background levels. † Beside that, organic pollution, such as manure or sewage, is popular, too. At some developing countries, the sewage runs straight to the river without handling. The solutions were proposed in many conferences of environment. Such as using paper bags instead of nylons, declining the smog of the industrial plants, or using natural fuels replace for gasoline, and so forth. But there is no united agreement among the countries. Environmental pollution is a serious issue, and it must be settled as soon as well. Nowadays, many countries have realized the harm of pollution and begun spreading information about protecting environment to their citizen. How to cite Environmental Pollution, Papers Environmental Pollution Free Essays -Journal of Arts, Science Commerce  ¦ E-ISSN 2229-4686  ¦ ISSN 2231-4172 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: ITS EFFECTS ON LIFE AND ITS REMEDIES Dr. Mashhood Ahmad Khan MBBS, DCH, MCPS, MD (Paeds), M. SC (Nutrition), Coordinator, Post Graduate Centre, Liaquat University of Medical Health Sciences, Jamshoro, Pakistan. We will write a custom essay sample on Environmental Pollution or any similar topic only for you Order Now Arsalan Mujahid Ghouri Mphil Graduate, Faculty Member, Indus Public College, Karachi, Pakistan. ABSTRACT: Environment pollution is a wide-reaching problem and it is likely to influence the health of human populations is great. This paper provides the insight view about the affects of environment pollution in the perspective of air pollution, water and land/ soil waste pollution on human by diseases and problems, animals and trees/ plants. Study finds that these kinds of pollutions are not only seriously affecting the human by diseases and problems but also the animals and trees/ plants. According to author, still time left in the hands of global institutions, governments and local bodies to use the advance resources to balance the environment for living and initiates the breathed intellectuals to live friendly with environment. As effective reply to contamination is largely base on human appraisal of the problem from every age group and contamination control program evolves as a nationwide fixed cost-sharing effort relying upon voluntary participation (Sharp Bromley, 1979). Keywords: Environment Pollution; Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Soil Pollution; Land Pollution; Remedies International Refereed Research Journal  ¦ www. researchersworld. com  ¦ Vol. – II, Issue –2,April 2011 276 -Journal of Arts, Science Commerce  ¦ E-ISSN 2229-4686  ¦ ISSN 2231-4172 1. INTRODUCTION: The significance of environmental factors to the health and well-being of human populations’ is increasingly apparent (Rosenstock 2003; World Health Organization [WHO], 2010b). Environment pollution is a worldwide problem and its potential to influence the health of human populations is great (Fereidoun et al, 2007; Progressive Insurance, 2005. ). Pollution reaches its most serious proportions in the densely settled urban-industrial centers of the more developed countries (Kromm, 1973). In poor countries of the world more than 80% polluted water have been used for irrigation with only seventy to eighty percent food and living security in industrial urban and semi urban areas. Mara Cairncross, 1989). Industry, clustered in urban and semi-urban areas surrounded by densely populated, low-income localities, continues to pollute the environment with impunity (Government of Pakistan, 2009). Over the last three decades there has been increasing global concern over the public health impacts attributed to environmental pollution (Kimani, 2007), Human exposure to pollution is believed to be more intense now than at any other time in human existence (Schell et al, 20 06). Pollution can be made by human activity and by natural forces as well (Fereidoun et al, 2007; The Encyclopedia of the Atmospheric Environment, n. d). Selfish private enterprise and their lack of awareness of public well-being and social costs (Carter, 1985) and natural disasters (Huppart Sparks, 2006) e. g. volcanic ash from Iceland (World Health Organization [WHO], 2010a) are the one of the main reason of pollution. British Airways (1993) expresses their concern about environment in their general goal ‘to be a good neighbor, concerned for the community and the environment. This implies that, businesses now adopted this responsibility as part of their overall business strategy; which should match their broader business goals (Pearce, 1991). At present, the adoption of environmental auditing in any economic sector is voluntary but future legislation could well make it mandatory. (Goodall, 1995). Sharp Bromley (1979) posit that pollution control program evolves as a nationwide fixed cost-sharing effort relying upon voluntary participation. Interestingly, Goodall (1995) refers tourism as the potential to damage the environment. There is no doubt that excessive levels of pollution are causing a lot of damage to human animal health, plants trees including tropical rainforests, as well as the wider environment. (Tropical Rainforest Animals, 2008). According to Fereidoun et at (2007), Tehran is one of victim cities in terms of environmental pollution. Gautam et al (2009) nominated Indian cities, among the most polluted cities in the world. Carter (1985) found pollution in formally known Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic and Slovakia) a serious issue which ultimately affects soils and vegetation. As Debarteleven (1992) postulates that environmental pollution and degradation are serious problems in Eastern and Central Europe. Kan (2009) originated the fact about China that, it has environmental problems, including outdoor and indoor air pollution, water shortages and pollution, desertification, and soil pollution, have become more pronounced and are subjecting Chinese residents to significant health risks. Environmental pollution is tangled with the unsustainable anthropogenic activities, resulting in substantial public health problems. (Khan, 2004). McGeehin et al, (2004) reported that U. S. population from infectious diseases to diseases such as cancer, birth defects, and asthma, many of which may be associated with environmental exposures. There is virtually no check on some 8,000 industrial units in USA that are contributing to high rates of pollution (Kaufman, 1993). Environmental health problems are not simply a conglomerate of concerns about Radiological health, water and wastewater treatment, air pollution control, solid waste disposal, occupational health, etc (Lynn Metzler, 1968). The Linton (1967), Spilhaus (1966) and Tukey (1965) made attempt to detail many of the specific environmental health problems which confront contemporary man. International Refereed Research Journal  ¦ www. researchersworld. com  ¦ Vol. – II, Issue –2,April 2011 277 -Journal of Arts, Science Commerce  ¦ E-ISSN 2229-4686  ¦ ISSN 2231-4172 1. 1 Air Pollution The air we breathe is an essential ingredient for our wellbeing and a healthy life. Unfortunately polluted air is common throughout the world (EPHA, 2009) specially in developed countries from 1960s. (Kan, 2009). South of Poland (Krzeslak Korytkowski, 1994), Ukraine (Avdeev Korchagin, 1994), China (Kan, 2009), and Pakistan (Government of Pakistan, 2009; Khan, 2010) even famous crowded cities and countries are facing air pollution. Polluted air contains one, or more, hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant that creates a hazard to general health (Health and Energy, 2007). The main pollutants found in the air we breathe include, particulate matter, PAHs, lead, ground-level ozone, heavy metals, sulphur dioxide, benzene, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide (European Public Health Alliance, 2009). Air pollution in cities causes a shorter lifespan for city dwellers (Progressive Insurance, 2005). Holland et al, (1979) illustrated that British scientists concluded that particulate and related air pollution at high levels pose hazards to human health. According to Mishra (2003) rapid growth in urban population, increasing industrialization, and rising demands for energy and motor vehicles are the worsening air pollution levels. He added other factors, such as poor environmental regulation, less efficient technology of production, congested roads, and age and poor maintenance of vehicles, also add to the problem. He further added that air pollution is caused of ill health and death by natural and man-made sources, major man-made sources of ambient air pollution include tobacco smoke, combustion of solid fuels for cooking, heating, home cleaning agents, insecticides industries, automobiles, power generation, poor environmental regulation, less efficient technology of production, congested roads, and age and poor maintenance of vehicles. The natural sources include incinerators and waste disposals, forest and agricultural fires (European Public Health Alliance, 2009). 1. Water pollution The water we drink are essential ingredients for our wellbeing and a healthy life. Unfortunately polluted water and air are common throughout the world (European Public Health Alliance, 2009). The WHO states that one sixth of the world’s population, approximately 1. 1 billion people do not have access to safe water and 2. 4 billion lack basic sanitation (European Public Health Alliance, 2009). Polluted wa ter consists of Industrial discharged effluents, sewage water, rain water pollution (Ashraf et al, 2010) and polluted by agriculture or households cause damage to human health or the environment. European Public Health Alliance, 2009). This water pollution affects the health and quality of soils and vegetation (Carter, 1985). Some water pollution effects are recognized immediately, whereas others don’t show up for months or years (Ashraf et al, 2010). Estimation indicates that more than fifty countries of the world with an area of twenty million hectares area are treated with polluted or partially treated polluted water (Hussain et al, 2001) including parts of all continents Avdeev Korchagin, 1994; Carter, 1985; Kan, 2009; Khan, 2010; Krzeslak Korytkowski, 1994; Wu et al, 1999) and this poor quality water causes health hazard and death of human being, aquatic life and also disturbs the production of different crops (Ashraf et al, 2010; Scipeeps, 2009). In fact, the effects of water pollution are said to be the leading cause of death for humans across the globe, moreover, water pollution affects our oceans, lakes, rivers, and drinking water, making it a widespread and global concern (Scipeeps, 2009). A drinking water contained a fluoride content ranging from 5. 26 to 26. 32 milligrams per liter and this is too high as compared to the World Health Organization’s standard of 0. 6 to 1. 7 milligram per liter (Rizvi, 2000). According to Ashraf et al (2010), In present scenario due to industrialization and increased population, the drains of Pakistan carry the industrial and municipal effluents that are ultimately carried that polluted water to the canals and rivers. The untreated International Refereed Research Journal  ¦ www. researchersworld. com  ¦ Vol. – II, Issue –2,April 2011 278 -Journal of Arts, Science Commerce  ¦ E-ISSN 2229-4686  ¦ ISSN 2231-4172 industrial and municipal wastes have created multiple environmental hazards for mankind, irrigation, drinking and sustenance of aquatic life. The drainage water contains heavy metals in addition to biological contaminations. This water pollution infected our food in addition to groundwater contamination when used to irrigate crops. Pakistani cities are facing tribulations of urban congestion, deteriorating air and water quality and waste management while the rural areas are witnessing rapid deforestation, biodiversity and habitat loss, crop failure, desertification, land degradation, clean drinking water, noise pollution, sanitation (Government of Pakistan, 2009). 1. 3 Land/ Solid waste Pollution Improper management of solid waste is one of the main causes of environmental pollution (Kimani, 2007). Land pollution is one of the major forms of environmental catastrophe our world is facing today (Khan, 2004). As Bulgaria and the Slovak Republic, heavy metal industries have produced wastes that are deposited into landfills without special precautions (Lenkova Vargova, 1994; Spassov, 1994). Cucu et al (1994) posit that approximately half of the population lives in the vicinity of waste sites that do not conform to contemporary standards in Romania. Czech Republic’s coal and uranium mines have produced serious pollution problems, and much of the solid industrial waste containing heavy metals is disposed of, without pretreatment, in open dumps (Rushbrook, 1994). Harvath Hegedus (1994) concluded as the worst pollution of Hungary comes from open cast mines, lignite-based power plants, chemical factories, and the aluminum industry. The Silesia district in the south of Poland has severe contamination from mining and industry (Krzeslak Korytkowski, 1994). Avdeev Korchagin (1994) conceived soil pollution are critical issues in Ukraine. World Bank (2002) found Particulate matter is the most serious pollutant in large cities in South Asia. 2. Effects of Dying Environment on Human, Animals and Plants Environment dying is global perilous point which catastrophically the human, animals and plants. Air pollution results are Cancer (Ries et al. 1999; European Public Health Alliance, 2009), neurobehavioral disorders (Blaxill 2004; Landrigan et al. 2002; Mendola et al. 2002; Schettler 2002; Stein et al. 2002), cardiovascular problems (European Public Health Alliance, 2009; Tillett, 2009), reduced energy levels (Colls, 2002), premature death (European Public Health Alliance, 2009), asthma (Brauer et al, 2007; Gehring et al, 2002; Jacquemin et al, 2009; Mannino et al. 998; McConnell et al, 2006; Modig et al, 2006), asthma exacerbations (D’Amato et al, 2005; Heinrich Wichmann, 2004; Kunzli et al, 2000; Nel, 2005;), headaches and dizziness (Colls, 2002), irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat (Colls, 2002), reduced lung functioning (Colls, 2002; Gauderman et al, 2005), respiratory symptoms (Colls, 2002; Vichit-Vadakan, 2 001), respiratory disease (European Public Health Alliance, 2009; Firkat, 1931), disruption of endocrine (Colls, 2002; Crisp et al, 1998) and reproductive and immune systems (Colls, 2002; European Public Health Alliance, 2009). London Fog episode of 1952, where a sharp increase in particulate matter air pollution led to increased mortality among infants and older adults (Woodruff et al, 2006). High air pollution levels have been linked to infant mortality. (Fereidoun et al, 2007). Air pollutants can also indirectly affect human health through acid rain, by polluting drinking water and entering the food chain, and through global warming and associated climate change and sea level rise. Mishra, 2003). Associations between particulate air pollution and respiratory disease are reported in Meuse Valley, Belgium, in December 1930 (Firkat, 1931), an episode in Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948 (Ciocco Thompson, 1961) and International Refereed Research Journal  ¦ www. researchersworld. com  ¦ Vol. – II, Issue –2,April 2011 279 -Journal of Arts, Science Commerce  ¦ E-ISSN 2229-4686  ¦ ISSN 2231-4172 the most notable occurring in December 1952 (Logan, 1953). According to Gardiner (2006) acid rain destroys fish life in lakes and streams and kill trees, destroy the leaves of plants, can permeate soil by making it inappropriate for reasons of nutrition and habitation, unwarranted ultraviolet radiation through the ozone layer eroded by some air pollutants, may cause skin cancer in wildlife and damage to trees and plants, and Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues of animals and can prevent plant respiration by blocking stomata (openings in leaves) and negatively affecting plants’ photosynthesis rates which will stunt plant growth; ozone can also decay plant cells directly by entering stomata. Polluted drinking water or water polluted by chemicals produced waterborne diseases like, Giardiasis, Amoebiasis, Hookworm, Ascariasis, Typhoid, Liver and kidney damage, Alzheimer’s disease, non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma, multiple Sclerosis, Hormonal problems that can disorder development and reproductive processes, Cancer, heart disease, damage to the nervous system, different type of damages on babies in womb, Parkinson’s disease, Damage to the DNA and even death, meanwhile, polluted beach water contaminated people like stomach aches, encephalitis, Hepatitis, diarrhoea, vomiting, gastroenteritis, respiratory infections, ear ache, pink eye and rashes (Water Pollution Effects, 2006). Loss of wild life is directly related to pollution (Progressive Insurance, 2005) and according to Water Pollution Effects (2006) on animals i) Nutrient polluted water causes overgrowth of toxic algae eaten by other aquatic animals, and may cause death; it can also cause eruptions of fish diseases, ii) Chemical contamination can cause declines in frog biodiversity and tadpole mass iii) Oil pollution can increase susceptibility to disease and affect reproductive processes and negatively affect development of marine organisms and it can also a source of gastrointestinal irritation, damage to the nervous system, liver and kidney damage iv) Mercury in water can cause reduced reproduction, slower growth and development, abnormal behavior and death v) Persistent organic pollutants may cause declines, deformities and death of fish life and Fish from polluted water and vegetable/ crops produced or washed from polluted water could also make impact on human and animal health. More sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may kill animals and plants, plants may be killed by mud from construction sites as well as bits of wood and leaves, clay and other similar materials and plants may be killed by herbicides in water (Kopaska-Merkel, 2000). For tree and plants water pollution may disrupt photosynthesis in aquatic plants and thus affecting ecosystems that depend on these plants (Forestry Nepal, n. d). Soil pollution effects causes according to tutorvista (n. d) are cancer including leukaemia and it is danger for young children as it can cause developmental damage to the brain furthermore it illustrated that mercury in soil increases the risk of neuromuscular blockage, causes headaches, kidney failure, depression of the central nervous system, , eye irritation and skin rash, nausea and fatigue. Soil pollution closely associated to air and water pollution, so its numerous effects come out as similar as caused by water and air contamination. TNAU Agritech Portal (n. d) soil pollution can alter metabolism of plants’ metabolism and reduce crop yields and same process with microorganisms and arthropods in a given soil environment; this may obliterate some layers of the key food chain, and thus have a negative effect on predator animal class. Small life forms may consume harmful chemicals which may then be passed up the food chain to larger animals; this may lead to increased mortality rates and even animal extinction. 3. CONCLUSION: It appears that polluted environment is global an issue and world community would bear worst results more as they already faced. As effective response to pollution is largely based on human appraisal of the problem (Kromm, 1973) and pollution control program evolves as a nationwide fixed cost-sharing effort relying upon voluntary participation (Sharp Bromley, 1979). Education, research, and advocacy, are lacking in the region as preventive strategy for pollution International Refereed Research Journal  ¦ www. researchersworld. com  ¦ Vol. – II, Issue –2,April 2011 280 -Journal of Arts, Science Commerce  ¦ E-ISSN 2229-4686  ¦ ISSN 2231-4172 (Fitzgerald, 1998) especially in Asia. At present the adoption of environmental auditing in any economic sector is voluntary but future legislation could well make it mandatory (Goodall, 1995) and still time available to use technology and information for environmental health decision. Policymakers in developing countries need to design programs, set standards, and take action to mitigate adverse health effects of air pollution. Healthy people mean human resources are the main object of any successful business or country. These societal beneficial efforts need to carefully adapt available knowledge from other settings, keeping in mind the differences in pollutant mixtures, concentration levels, exposure patterns, and various underlying population characteristics. REFRENCES: [1] Ashraf, M. A. , Maah, M. J. , Yusoff, I. Mehmood, K. (2010). Effects of Polluted Water Irrigation on Environment and Health of People in Jamber, District Kasur, Pakistan, International Journal of Basic Applied Sciences, 10(3), pp. 37-57. [2] Avdeev, O. Korchagin, P. (1994). Organization and Implementation of Contaminated Waste Neutralization in the Ukraine – National Report II, Central. European Journal of Public Health, 2(suppl), pp. 51-52. [3] Blaxill, M. F. (2004). What’s going on? The Question of Time Trends in Autism. Public Health Reports, 119(6), pp. 536-551. [4] Brauer, M. , Hoek, G. , Smith, H. A. , de Jongste, J. C. , Gerritsen, J. Postma, D. S. (2007). 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Vargova, M. (1994). Hazardous Wastes in the Slovak Republic-National Report, Central European Journal of Public Health, 2(suppl), pp. 43-48. [42] Linton, R. M. (1967). A Strategy for a Livable How to cite Environmental Pollution, Papers

Photoperiodism Essays (243 words) - Circadian Rhythm, Botany

Photoperiodism annon Plants and animals in the temperate zones respond in different ways to the amount of daylight in 24-hour periods. This response to day length is called photo periodism. It controls many activities, among them is the flowering of plants. The ability to respond to day length is linked to an inner, light-sensitive circadian rhythm. In the temperate zones, day lengths during the natural 24-hour cycle vary with the seasons. In winter and spring, the period of light lengthens; in summer and autumn, it shortens. Plants in these zones undergo alternate 12-hour phases of light sensitivity. During one 12-hour phase, decreasing exposure to light induces a short-day reaction. For example, deciduous trees under the influence of the shorter days of fall drop their leaves. During the other 12-hour phase, more exposure to light creates a long-day reaction. Deciduous trees grow leaves again during the lengthening days of spring. This indicates that through their sensitivity to changes in the duration of light, plants can measure day length to determine the season and the time spans within a season. Florists can often manipulate greenhouse plants into producing blossoms out of season by exposing them to periods of artificial light. Some scientists are not certain that the biological clock of any organism is completely endogenous. They think that even under the most constant of laboratory conditions living things are aware of the Earth's rotation and that this has an effect on the wheelof their clocks. However, many scientists believe that such factors are not essential to the functioning of biological clocks.

O Come, O Come, Emmanuel in Spanish

O Come, O Come, Emmanuel in Spanish Here is a Spanish version of the popular Christmas carol and Advent hymn O Come, O Come Emmanuel. The song, whose author is unknown, comes originally from Latin, dating to around the 11th century, and is known in both English and Spanish in multiple versions. This Spanish version is one of the most popular.  ¡Oh ven!,  ¡Oh ven, Emanuel!  ¡Oh ven!,  ¡Oh ven, Emanuel!Libra al cautivo Israel,Que sufre desterrado aquà ­,Y espera al Hijo de David. Estribillo: ¡Alà ©grate, oh Israel!Vendr, ya viene Emanuel.  ¡Oh ven, Tà º, Vara de Isaà ­!Redime al pueblo infelizDel poderà ­o infernalY danos vida celestial.  ¡Oh ven, Tà º, Aurora celestial!Alà ºmbranos con tu verdad,Disipa toda oscuridad,Y danos dà ­as de solaz.  ¡Oh ven, Tà º, Llave de David!Abre el celeste hogar feliz;Haz que lleguemos bien all,Y cierra el paso a la maldad. English Translation of Spanish Version Oh come! Oh come, Emmanuel!Free captive IsraelWhich here suffers, displaced,And waits for the Son of David. Chorus:Be joyful, O Israel!He will come, Emmanuel is coming. O come, You, Rod of IsraelRedeem the unhappy peopleFrom hells powerAnd give us heavenly life. O You, come, celestial light of dawn!Illuminate us with your truth,Dispel all darkness,And give us days of solace. O come, You, Davids Key.Open the happy heavenly home.Make it so we arrive there well,And close the path  to evil. Translation Notes Oh: This interjection usually expresses amazement or happiness, so it isnt always the equivalent of oh. It is far more common in poetic writing than in everyday speech. Ven: The Spanish verb venir, usually meaning to come is highly irregular. Ven is the singular, familiar imperative form, so in Spanish this song unambiguously is written as if speaking to Emanuel. Emanuel: The Spanish word here is a personal name transliterated from Hebrew, meaning God is with us. The name is still used today, often  in the shortened form of Manuel. In Christianity, the name usually refers to Jesus. Libra: This is the singular  familiar imperative form of librar, meaning to free to liberate. Al: Al is a contraction of a (to) and el (the). The use of the personal a here indicates  that Israel is being personified. Desterrado: The adjective desterrado is derived from the noun tierra, meaning Earth. In this context, it means exiled, referring to someone removed from his or her homeland. In informal contexts, it can mean banished. Danos: It is common to attach object pronouns to verbs in the imperative mood. Here the pronoun nos, or us, is attached to imperative of dar. Tà º: The familiar form of you is used throughout this hymn as it is the pronoun that Spanish-speaking Christians use in prayer. Vara de Isaà ­: A vara is a rod or stick. Isaà ­ is a  poetically shortened form of the name Isaà ­as, or Isaiah. The reference here is to Isaiah 11:1 in the Christian Old Testament that there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse. Christians have interpreted this as a prophesy of the Messiah, whom they believe to be Jesus. In the common English version of this hymn, the line is Come O rod of Jesses stem. Redime:  From the verb redimir, to redeem. Alà ©grate: From the reflexive form of the verb alegrar. Aurora: The aurora is the first light of dawn. In the English version, Dayspring is used here. Alumbranos: Alumbrar  means to enlighten or to give light. Disipar: Although this verb can be translated as to dissipate, in the context of this song it is better translated as to get rid of or to dispel. Oscuridad: This word can mean obscurity, as when referring ideas. But it far more often means darkness. The related adjective is oscuro. Solaz: In some contexts, solaz refers to rest or relaxation. Llave de David: This phrase, meaning key of David, is a reference to an Old Testament verse, Isaiah 22:22, which Christians have understood to refer symbolically to the authority of the coming Messiah. Lleguemos: This verb for is an example of the subjunctive mood. Llegar is a common verb meaning to arrive. Note that llegar is irregular because the -g- of the stem changes to -gu- when followed by an e to maintain the correct pronunciation. Celeste: Here, this word has the meaning of celestial. However, in other contexts it can refer to the blue color of the sky. Haz: This is an irregular form of hacer.

Biography of Rita Levi-Montalcini, Nobel Prize Winner

Biography of Rita Levi-Montalcini, Nobel Prize Winner Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012) was a Nobel Prize-winning neurologist who discovered and studied the Nerve Growth Factor, a critical chemical tool the human body uses to direct cell growth and build nerve networks. Born into a Jewish family in Italy, she survived the horrors of Hitlers Europe to make major contributions to research on cancer and Alzheimers disease. Fast Facts: Rita Levi-Montalcini Occupation: Nobel Prize winning neuroscientistKnown For: Discovering the first nerve growth factor (NGF)Born: April 22, 1909 in Turin, Italy  Parents Names: Adamo Levi and Adele MontalciniDied: December 30, 2012 in Rome, ItalyEducation: University of TurinKey Accomplishments: Nobel Prize in Medicine, U.S. National Medal of ScienceFamous Quote:  If I had not been discriminated against or had not suffered persecution, I would never have received the Nobel Prize. Early Years Rita Levi-Montalcini was born in Turin, Italy, on April 22, 1909. She was the youngest of four children from a well-to-do Italian Jewish family led by Adamo Levi, an electrical engineer, and Adele Montalcini, a painter. As was the custom in the early 20th century, Adamo discouraged Rita and her sisters Paola and Anna from entering college. Adamo felt that the womans role of raising a family was incompatible with creative expression and professional endeavors. Rita had other plans. At first, she wanted to be a philosopher, then decided she wasnt logically minded enough. Then, inspired by Swedish writer Selma Lagerlof, she considered a career in writing. After her governess died of cancer, however, Rita decided she would become a doctor, and in 1930, she entered the University of Turin at the age of 22. Ritas twin sister Paola went on to great success as an artist. Neither of the sisters married, a fact about which neither expressed any regret. Education Levi-Montalcinis first mentor at the University of Turin was Giuseppe Levi (no relation). Levi was a prominent neurohistologist who introduced Levi-Montalcini to the scientific study of the developing nervous system. She became an intern at the Institute of Anatomy at Turin, where she grew adept at histology, including techniques like staining nerve cells. Giuseppe Levi was known for being something of a tyrant, and he gave his mentee an impossible task: figure out how the convolutions of the human brain are formed. However, Levi-Montalcini was unable to obtain human fetal tissue in a country where abortion was illegal, so she dropped the research in favor of studying nervous system development in chick embryos. In 1936, Levi-Montalcini graduated from the University of Turin summa cum laude with a degree in Medicine and Surgery. She then enrolled in a three-year specialization in neurology and psychiatry. In 1938, Benito Mussolini banned  non-Aryans from academic and professional careers. Levi-Montalcini was working at a scientific institute in Belgium when Germany invaded that country in 1940, and she returned to Turin, where her family was considering emigrating to the United States. However, the Levi-Montalcinis ultimately decided to remain in Italy. In order to continue her research on chick embryos, Levi-Montalcini installed a small research unit at home in her bedroom.   World War II In 1941, heavy Allied bombing forced the family to abandon Turin and move to the countryside. Levi-Montalcini was able to continue her research until 1943, when the Germans invaded Italy. The family fled to Florence, where they lived in hiding until the end of World War II.   While in Florence, Levi-Montalcini worked as a medical doctor for a refugee camp and fought epidemics of infectious diseases and typhus. In May 1945, the war ended in Italy, and Levi-Montalcini and her family returned to Turin, where she resumed her academic positions and worked again with Giuseppe Levi. In the fall of 1947, she received an invitation from Professor Viktor Hamburger at the Washington University in St. Louis (WUSTL) to work with him conducting research on chick embryo development. Levi-Montalcini accepted; she would remain at WUSTL until 1977.   Professional Career At WUSTL, Levi-Montalcini and Hamburger discovered a protein that, when released by cells, attracts nerve growth from nearby developing cells. In the early 1950s, she and biochemist Stanley Cohen isolated and described the chemical which became known as the Nerve Growth Factor.  Ã‚   Levi-Montalcini became an associate professor at WUSTL in 1956 and a full professor in 1961. In 1962, she helped establish the Institute of Cell Biology in Rome and became its first director. She retired from WUSTL in 1977, remaining as emerita there but splitting her time between Rome and St. Louis.   Nobel Prize and Politics In 1986, Levi-Montalcini and Cohen were together awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. She was only the fourth woman to win a Nobel Prize. In 2002, she established the European Brain Research Institute (EBRI) in Rome, a non-profit center to foster and promote brain research.   In 2001, Italy made her a senator for life, a role which she did not take lightly. In 2006, at the age of 97, she held the deciding vote in the Italian parliament on a budget that was backed by the government of Roman Prodi. She threatened to withdraw her support unless the government reversed a last-minute decision to cut science funding. The funding was put back in, and the budget passed, despite attempts by the opposition leader Francesco Storace to silence her. Storace mockingly sent her crutches, stating that she was too old to vote and a crutch to an ailing government. At the age of 100, Levi-Montalcini was still going to work at the EBRI, now named after her.   Personal Life Levi-Montalcini never married and had no children. She was briefly engaged in medical school, but had no long-term romances. In a 1988 interview with Omni magazine, she commented that even marriages between two brilliant people might suffer because of resentment over unequal success.   She was, however, the author or co-author of over 20 popular books, including her own autobiography, and dozens of research studies. She received numerous scientific medals, including the United States National Medal of Science, presented to her at the White House by President Ronald Reagan in 1987. Famous Quotes In 1988, Scientific American asked 75 researchers their reasons for becoming a scientist. Levi-Montalcini gave the following reason:   The love for nerve cells, a thirst for unveiling the rules which control their growth and differentiation, and the pleasure of performing this task in defiance of the racial laws issued in 1939 by the Fascist regime were the driving forces which opened the doors for me of the Forbidden City. During a 1993 interview with Margaret Holloway for Scientific American, Levi-Montalcini mused:   If I had not been discriminated against or had not suffered persecution, I would never have received the Nobel Prize.   Levi-Montalcinis 2012 obituary in the New York Times included the following quote, from her autobiography: It is imperfection- not perfection- that is the end result of the program written into that formidably complex engine that is the human brain, and of the influences exerted upon us by the environment and whoever takes care of us during the long years of our physical, psychological and intellectual development. Legacy and Death Rita Levi-Montalcini died on December 30, 2012, at age 103, at her home in Rome. Her discovery of the Nerve Growth Factor, and the research that led to it, gave other researchers a new way to study and understand cancers (disorders of neural growth) and Alzheimers disease (degeneration of neurons). Her research created fresh pathways for developing groundbreaking therapies.   Levi-Montalcinis influence in nonprofit science efforts, refugee work, and mentoring students was considerable. Her 1988 autobiography is eminently readable and often assigned to beginning STEM students. Sources Abbott, Alison. Neuroscience: One Hundred Years of Rita. Nature 458 (1909): 564–67. Print.Aloe, L. Rita Levi-Montalcini and the Discovery of NGF, the First Nerve Cell Growth Factor. Archives Italiennes de Biologie 149.2 (2011): 175–81. Print.Arnheim, Rudolf, et al. Seventy-Five Reasons to Become a Scientist: American Scientist Celebrates Its Seventy-Fifth Anniversary. American Scientist 76.5 (1988): 450–63. Print.Carey, Benedict. Dr. Rita Levi-Montalcini, Nobel Winner, Dies at 103. The New York Times December 30, 2012, New York ed.: A17. Print.Holloway, Marguerite. Finding the Good in the Bad: A Profile of Rita Levi-Montalcini. Scientific American  (2012, originally published 1993). Print.Levi-Montalcini, Rita. In Praise of Imperfection: My Life and Work. Trans. Attardi, Luigi. Alfred P. Sloan Foundation 220: Basic Books, 1988. Print.Levi-Montalcini, Rita, and Stanley Cohen. Rita Levi-Montalcini- Facts. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986.  Web.

Any topic (writer's choice) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Any topic (writer's choice) - Essay Example Gladwell notes that there is a disadvantage in the perceived advantaged classroom setups. He elaborates the situation using the inverted U curve Theory. Using the theory, it is clear that majority of American parents prefer small classrooms to large ones. The U curve theory provides that most people prefer working in small groups. However, people choosing to work in small groups do not consider the disadvantages associated with small numbers. Using the U curve theory, Gladwell notes that most American Schools brag about their small sized classrooms that allow providing maximum teacher-student interactions (Gladwell 97). Gladwell notes that the schools might be disillusioned since there are certain disadvantages associated with such setups. Small class size does not give students a wide exposure to the world of reality through discussions. Essentially, the discussions in small class size are minimal and, therefore, limit students’ interactions in the learning environment. Gladwell adopts the Little Pond Theory to explain the freedom of disadvantage. Gladwell argues that people underestimate the power vested in them and, therefore, do not realize the potential they have. He gives an example of how the above-average students think that they are bright and should score high grades (Gladwell 134). In addition, the above average students tend to choose only institutions or courses which have a better reputation or ranking. To their shock, the institutions or courses contain valedictorians that provide uniformity to all students.

Congress and Presidency in the United States Essay

Congress and Presidency in the United States - Essay Example The federal government of the United States is divided into three branches that are intended to perform separate functions independently. These branches are the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. However, the legislature is more powerful since it has the role of oversight and making laws that affect the operations of the arms of government. The president, on the other hand, is the head of state and plays a significant role in the coordination of the executive to deliver its mandate to the citizens. Therefore, there is a dependency created by the Congress and the presidency, and they share legislative powers (Dewhirst and Rausch, 2009). While the doctrine of separation of powers was intended that the three arms act autonomously, it has turned out over time that it is a system of shared powers. According to Richard Neustadt, a president is a person trusted by the public to offer viable solutions to problems. Thus, he or she should work not as a master, but as a coworker with the elected leaders in the Congress (Lee, 2012). In this regard, the primary duties of the presidency are to persuade the Congress to legislate on crucial matters. Similarly, the Congress also depends on the president to signs bills into law, thereby making the sharing of power more conspicuous. Nevertheless, there are constitutional provisions that allow the Congress to pass bills into laws. For instance, if the president fails to sign a draft bill in 10 days, it automatically becomes law.

Gender Issues and Barriers in Chinese Business

Gender Issues and Barriers in Chinese Business What kind of barriers blocked (interrupt) female to be an organization leader in China? Abstract China is one of the most populous countries in the world, with over 50 percent of its female population in full time work. Like many other countries, China’s women are under-represented in senior management or organisational leadership roles within Chinese organisations. Yet Chinese women are being educated as well as men, if not better, and benefit from fundamental policies which prevent discrimination in the world of work. It appears that there are barriers which affect Chinese women’s ability to advance along the career ladder to become organisation leaders. A qualitative, Grounded Theory based study was carried out to determine what, if any, were the barriers to women becoming organisation leaders in China. The study aimed to ensure a focus on women themselves and so the sample comprised women already working within Chinese businesses and organisations, who were asked to identify barriers to their becoming business leaders or senior executives. Sensitising questions followed up an initial questionnaire and proforma, to probe into more detail about their responses. The Grounded Theory process of Open, Axial and Selective Coding was followed systematically, and the final three categories of Leadership Effectiveness, Stereotypes and Preconceptions, and Social and Societal Norms and Expectations and Personal Characteristics were identified and discussed. It seems that the key barriers to women becoming organisational leaders are their capacity to be effective leaders, the stereotypes and preconceptions of them as women workers, on the part of others and on the part of the women themselves, and the social norms versus their personal characteristics. This last category included unique aspects of Chinese culture and business etiquette which pose significant challenges for women in leadership roles. More research is now needed to explore in more concrete ways these barriers, and to identify practical and achievable ways that they might be overcome. Introduction China is one of the most populous nations in the world (Saran and Guo, 2005). â€Å"China is a large country, with more than half a billion women, over 50 per cent of who are in full-time employment† (Cooke, 2004 p 243). This represents a significant percentage of the workforce. There is, apparently, a discrepancy between the numbers of women in employment and the numbers of women who achieve senior leadership roles within Chinese organisations. It seems that â€Å"knowledge about these Chinese women in general and women in management in specific, remains very limited† (Cooke, 2004 p 243). There appear to be very little sources of information on the numbers of women in senior management or leadership positions in either the public or the private sector in China. While this may not seem to be a surprise to many, it does beg the question of why women do not achieve senior leadership positions within businesses and organisations in China, particularly given a growing aware ness of China’s success within the global business environment, which must influence business and organisational practices. It is established within the business and organisational literature, as well as other social literature, that â€Å"gender discrimination remains a reality in our society† (Agars, 2004 p 103). This is despite evolution of societies and apparent changes in values, because there is evidence that in all aspects of social life people and their reactions and judgements are affected by gender stereotypes and preconceptions (Agars, 2004). It is also well known that there are more men than women in managerial roles in the business and occupational world (Lublin, 1996), and this disparity increases the higher the seniority of the position (Agars, 2004; Adler and Izraili, 1994; AMBA, 1996). The rationale for investigating the barriers which block or interrupt women from being organisation leaders in China stems partly from the great reliance of the Chinese economy on its economic capacity, and in particular its business capacity, locally and in the global marketplace. Economic success of developing countries (if China can still be considered such) is clearly linked to gender equality (Morrison and Jutting, 2005). If Chinese businesses are to succeed, they need to espouse and contain the characteristics of successful businesses. If Chinese state organisations are to function at their optimal capacity and make best use of available resources, they should optimise their usage of those resources, a significant one being their human resources. Women may be being overlooked as potentially valuable contributors to senior management and leadership positions. However, this may simply reflect the lower status of women in Chinese society (Tian et al, 2007). Paradoxically, Chinese women are not necessarily viewed by all as of lower status. Foo et al (2006) quote a United Nations Development Fund study which summarises Chinese women as outshining men in the business arena because they are better at communications; they are able to think more rationally; and because they pursue their careers with single-minded resolve. Yet there is ongoing evidence that these women are still under-represented in senior leadership roles. Noble (2006) states â€Å"excluding women from leadership roles impacts on productivity and militates against a workforce characterised by a diversity of workers† (p 599). This idea of gender inequality comes down to simple business sense. â€Å"Models of women in senior positions and in equal numbers generally benefit the institutions offering different perspectives, experiences and contributions women can make. (Noble, 2006 p 599). Noble (2006) describes the lack of women in such roles as a â€Å"wastage of management and leadership talent which arises from and is perpetuated by the current under representation of women at senior levels,† and which â€Å"seriously undermines organisations’ ability to respond to change and threatens its future viability and vitality in the face of the economic challenges of the changing workplace.† p 599). Therefore, it can easily be seen that for optimal business performance, the capacity of women to contribute to its s uccess should not be overlooked, and so a study into the barriers which face women in achieving such positions could be of considerable significance for such organisations within China. However, the other rationale for this choice of investigation is to promote the interests of women within the Chinese world of employment and entrepreneurship, and to ensure that the research carried out focuses on their perspectives and illuminates their experiences. It is typical of the business world that the theoretical arena it is supported by is dominated by studies based on rationalistic principles and on outputs and outcomes relating to success and factors which contribute to that success. There is a human dimension of business, which the theoretical domain is now starting to appreciate, in which business capacity and success can be found to be reliant not only on the skills of the workforce, but on their capacity to contribute in multiple ways to the organisation and its outputs. Understanding the views and experiences of women may help not only to define the barriers which face them in relation to achieving leadership roles, but to set out some ways in which such barriers m ight be overcome, sidestepped, reduce or even removed from their path. Women within employment seem to consistently suffer, at a certain level, from a relative inequality with men. Women in China, however, have for a long time enjoyed employment rights based on equality legislation which has shaped social norms to support women into full time employment, which continues throughout their working lives, even when they have children (Cooke, 2004). Despite this, women do not enjoy the same levels of seniority in organisations and businesses as men do, and certainly not in similar numbers. This is a human rights issue (Noble, 2006) and one which is of concern to China and to all women and women’s activists. It may be related to a trend within former socialist countries of what Fan (2003) calls ‘transition’, which is characterised by a resurgence of gendered differences in occupational spheres. Because China is a business culture in a state of transition and change, and in which the effects of change may not be realised for some time, there is a need for investigative studies which explore the characteristics of this culture, from the points of view of those within it. There is an issue here about understanding what barriers present themselves to women who aspire to leadership roles, but also, whether or not women in these Chinese business and occupational spheres do view themselves as working towards such advancements. Because of the lack of empirical research on the subject of the barriers which present themselves to women who wish to aspire to leadership roles in organisations in China, the choice of methodological approach for the inquiry was limited, as quantitative studies are based on hypotheses developed from previously published research. Good quality quantitative research studies also require large samples of a diverse study population, and the limitations of this academic research project do not allow for the kind of survey that would provide adequate numbers, statistically, for a purely quantitative study. Therefore, having explored a range of options for the investigation of the research question, the author came to the conclusion that a quantitative approach would be best suited to this area. However, the author was keen to include simple descriptive statistics within the study data, and also wanted to achieve a similar level of rigour as is usually achievable within the quantitative d omain. Therefore, the author settled on the use of Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), which is a methodology derived from symbolic interactionism and within which there are rigidly defined stages of the investigation, with clearly outlined process and steps towards the development of theoretical understandings which nevertheless remain firmly grounded in the data derived from the study (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Goulding, 2005). The following dissertation is set out within the traditional parameters required by the university and by the academic standards of higher education. There is first a literature review, then a description and exploration of the methodology utilised within the study. This is followed by an outline of the data characteristics and background, which is then followed an exploration and discussion of the qualitative data derived from the study. This data is considered and evaluated alongside extant research findings which relate to the data, as is required by the Grounded Theory method, in which data analysis and literature analysis occur simultaneously, such that the accessed literature is treated much as the data is, and subject to the same constant comparison (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This is followed by conclusions and recommendations for practice and further research. The study aimed to illuminate the murky depths of untapped knowledge and understanding of the barriers which interru pt women’s career progression within Chinese organisations, and thus barriers will be identified and to some extent, their meanings or significance explored. The literature review and the data analysis are separated into themed subheadings, to better signpost the emergent discursive threads of the study. Literature Review Due to the nature of the topic area, it is not possible to address all the available literature, but a critical literature review of key issues will be attempted. The literature review draws on sources related to Chinese business, women in business, entrepreneurship, social theory and even feminist theory, as well as general business and organisational studies, in order to explore the potential barriers that might have already been identified as challenging women to be organisational leaders. The balance of research is affected by the available literature, and by the nature of the research which has already been carried out into similar topics. Little however is written, in terms of empirical research, which directly addresses this dissertation’s research question. However, there are valuable contributions to be made by research from across the business and organisational literature in relation to generic and specific factors affecting women’s opportunities to become or ganisational leaders. China has a vast area of land, and is characterised by considerable social, economic, geographic and ethnic diversity (Chow et al, 2004). Only those factors which can directly be related to the study question will be addressed here. This will allow for the setting of the context and current understanding of the factors which affect the experience of women in China aspiring to become organisational and business leaders. In China, women work alongside their husbands throughout their lifespan, and are supported by employment policies which assure them a reasonably equal role as workers, in terms of basic employment rights (Chow et al, 2004). Therefore, women have a firm foundation within the world of employment, and should, it could be argued, be surrounded by the same opportunities as their male counterparts in terms of career advancement. However, this does not seem to be the case. It is a global feature of business that women seem to experience what is known as the ‘glass ceiling’ within occupational life (Ryan and Haslam, 2005; Cortis and Cassar, 2005). This refers to the fact that women can attain up to a certain level of seniority in many organisations or businesses, but cannot break through into senior leadership roles. There are numerous studies which explore how and why this glass ceiling came to exist, and how it is perpetuated. In terms of Chinese culture, there are strong traditions of loyalty to family and loyalty to one’s boss or employer (Fu et al, 2004). This author would question whether this notion of loyalty contributes to the glass ceiling within Chinese organisations. Gender Obviously, the first and most obvious potential barrier for women in business in China (and in any other culture or nation-state) is that of gender. Gender within this context needs defining, as theoretically, it is still the subject of some argument. Ahl (2006) refers back to feminist scholarship which employed the term gender to distinguish between biological sex and socially constructed definitions of sex, the social practices and representations associated with femininity or masculinity† (p 596). In this article, gender is used to refer to sex in terms of the biological differences between male and female, and the socially-constructed models of masculine and feminine. It is important to note that these may differ according to Western and Chinese norms, and where possible, differentiations between cultural definitions of gender will be highlighted. It has long been known that business is a male or masculine domain. There has been research which suggests that men and women even differ in terms of occupational aspirations, such that males would tend to aspire towards male-dominated occupations in which they can hope for better success, and women, though to a somewhat lesser extent, showing a tendency to veer towards female-dominated occupations in which they are more likely to be able to excel more easily (Powell and Butterfield, 2003). This may be partly due to historical and even current forms of gender discrimination within business and occupational/professional spheres. Gender discrimination however is no longer as apparent as it used to be, thanks to anti-discrimination policies in most organisations and nations (Beck and Davis, 2005). However, in China, â€Å"the half a century’s state intervention in women’s employment has largely focused on protecting women’s labour rights and increasing their share in employment quantitatively, whereas little provision exists which aims to ensure and improve the quality of women’s employment prospects† (Cooke, 2004 p 245). Cooke (2004) shows that women are less represented in professional or management positions, and are more prevalent in clerical and lower-level manual work (Sargeson 2006; Sargeson 2007a). This is significant, given that Chinese women do not traditionally take career breaks to have children, and view their role as equal to that of their husbands in terms of full time work (Cooke, 2004; Sargeson 2007b). This is in direct contrast to the Westernised (and perhaps globalised) norms of women’s occupational experience, wherein women have to either accepted diminished occupational capacity and career advancement in order to have children, or embrace childlessness in order to comply with inherent business norms and achieve success within those parameters (Wood and Newton, 2006; Burke, 1999). Even so, â€Å"men make up the majority of employees in most of the occupations and in state owned sectors where average earnings are highest† (Cooke, 2004 p 245). This is no new finding. For women in China, â€Å"historical and socio-political factors such as the legacy of Marxism, state/party control, economic reform, political upheavals, local conditions and global influences† have affected their self identity, they understanding of their place within the business and employment worlds, and the ways in which they perceive of and experience their career progress and success (Chow et al, 2004, p 161). China has followed an intellectual revolution which has brought to the fore gender studies and feminist studies (Chow et al, 2004), which suggests that the cultural response would likely be that women are more aware of the kinds of organisational and societal cultural barriers to their career advancement into leadership roles. Studying Chinese women’s experiences of barriers to career advancement could be problematic, however, because the very terms used by Westernised scholarly discourse to describe issues of gender and women’s equal rights are essentially difficult to translate (Chow et al, 2004). However, as all literature for this assignment is accessed in English, this should only be viewed as a potential weakness to the study if the respondents are first language Chinese and there are discrepancies between underlying meanings. Another feature of gender discrimination in Chinese business is the fact that the â€Å"state-owned enterprises and public-sector organisations typically operate in an internal labour market system in which jobs are rarely advertised, and promotion decisions are made internally†¦by superiors† (Cooke, 2004, p 249). This means that internal cultural and business mores and codes, which are often set and perpetuated by managers and leaders (who are most likely men), are perpetuated in a way that might exclude women from achieving advancement (Boisot and Child, 1996; Church et al, 2003). These are however buried, often, and not easily labelled as gender discrimination (Beck and Davis, 2005). This is a common feature of all businesses and organisations, it seems, which continue to operate along traditional ‘patriarchal’ and hierarchical lines. Cultural issues also point to gender issues which may present as barriers to women’s career advancement (Brush, 1992). Hanser (2005) explores emerging conceptions of gender in China, in relation, in particular, to service work. This ethnographic study within three urban Chinese retain settings shows that there are gendered class distinctions which are communicated and perpetuated within this sector, which a move from socialism to a more marketized society, wherein younger, youthful and feminine (and urban) women are valued while older and rural women are devalued (Hanser, 2005; Duehr and Bono, 2006). This is reflected in other international contexts and other types of societies (Egri and Ralston, 2004). Hanser (2005) related this to a legitmization of certain roles for certain women within Chinese employment contexts, a fact supported by Coe (1992). This then has nothing to do with role effectiveness, but to do with the external characteristics of women (Hanser, 2005; Cooke; 2 003; Cooke, 2005). Appropriate ‘behaviours’ may be reinforced and inappropriate behaviours censured by such limited characterisations of the suitable female employee (Hanser, 2005). Lewis (2006) uses the example of women entrepreneurs, and suggests that â€Å"the behaviour (business or other) of women involved in entrepreneurial activity of whatever sort is defined and evaluated according to the standards of an invisible masculine norm† (p 453). This shows that underlying business activities are gendered definitions of how people within the market should behave and present themselves (Collinson and Collinson, 1990; Connell, 2005). Because of this, women’s ability to gain commercial, business or occupational success is defined and constrained by apparently unseen (but very real) forces (Cornelius and Skinner, 2008): â€Å"Where this behaviour is judged as differing from the normative standard of serious, professional business, women experience an ‘othering’ as the non-male and are marked out.† (Lewis, 2006 p 453). This is a constant theme of the business literature, that the male is the standard and the female is viewed as ‘other’, as unconventional, as non-standard (and perhaps inherently non-compliant) (Beechey, 1987). Perceptions of gender and gender limitations may also be internalised by many women, and may explain one reason why women do not lead as many successful businesses as men, or are not business leaders as frequently (Bryman, 1987). Kalleberg and Leicht (2005) show that women are less likely to innovate, take risks or step out in new directions in business than men, perhaps due to â€Å"the social disapproval girls are likely to incur for straying from socially accepted, gender-normative patterns of behaviour, and the encouragement and tolerance that boys typically receive for engaging in innovative play and nonconforming behaviour† (p 142). Education It is thought by some theorists that the lower representation of women in senior positions is due to their marginally lower levels of education compared to those of men in China (Cooke, 2004). However, it is also apparent that amount of women in higher education has been increasing recently in China, at a much faster rate than men (Cooke, 2004). Education is seen as a key to senior executive careers (Baruch and Peiperl, 2000; Bickerstaffe, 1992; Carpenter, 1997). This would suggest that the relative lack of education suggested as a barrier to women achieving senior leadership roles may be a factor which is being rapidly eroded. However, it is hard to find evidence of this. Cooke (2004) also argues that â€Å"discrimination against women starts in the recruitment selection to higher education in institutions† (p 247), and this has follow-on effects throughout their subsequent careers. Women are under-represented in certain subjects, including science and business subjects, and have to perform better than men to achieve the same levels of acclaim (Cooke, 2004). Bahry and Marr (2005) show how women’s education in Qatar has developed to such an extent that women are being over-represented in higher education, and that this might signify a shift in gender-dominance in future business domains. However, the nature of this education is not necessarily such that it would develop the kinds of abilities and capacities that are needed in order to gain leadership roles later on in life (Bahry and Marr, 2005). Globalisation and the current international business environment It is important to consider where women business leaders or potential business leaders in China might locate themselves, ideologically and paradigmatically, and how the current environment might affect their ability to assume such senior roles. Mamman and Liu (2008) discuss the difference between macro-level examinations of globalisation on business (and on culture and society), and the micro-level, in which the effects of globalisation on individuals can be appreciated. Globalisation can potentially affect all areas of business (Gunkel et al, 2007). China has, since the 1980s, both embraced and significantly benefited from industrial and business globalisation (Fishman, 2006; Hirst and Thompson, 1999; Stiglitz, 2002; 2003; 2006). According to Mamman and Liu (2008), â€Å"globalisation is particularly important to a society like China where the impact of globalization can have both positive and negative connotations depending on where individuals are geographically located and wheth er they operate in the public or private sector† (p 2). Thus, there may be barriers to achieving career success or business leadership for women in China which are directly related to their personal experience or understanding of globalisation. Mamman and Liu (2008) suggest that â€Å"the form and manner in which globalization is pursued by organizations (private or public) and the nation states is an aggregation of thoughts and behaviour of individuals enabled and constrained by global forces† (p 6). This kind of understanding would suggest that global forces may act as barriers to women becoming business leaders, but it could also be viewed that globalisation could likely be an emancipating force for women in China, because it might at least provide role models for business leadership in other areas and across a diverse range of businesses (Elliott and Stead, 2008). However, it is not enough to cite the forces that emerge from globalisation, such as greater participation in more diverse markets or the presence of women peers with which to do business. It is also important to understand the individual level of response to the new global business environment. It seems that â€Å"to understand why and how organizations and institutions behave in the global economy, we also need to understand how key actors interpret global phenomenon† (p 6). Therefore, accessing individual women who work within business, and women who are seeking to develop as entrepreneurs, would provide th is personal understanding of the global forces of business and perhaps identify more individual as well as international barriers to women succeeding as business leaders. Globalisation is viewed in the business literature usually in positive terms (Mittelman, 2006), but Oka (1998) argues that this may not be the case. Oka (1998) suggests that the terminology of globalisation has â€Å"a distinct connotation of something whole †¦[that] suggests absolute relatedness, harmony, balance and smoothness† (p 32). However, this, according to Oka (1998) is not the case, and there is the argument that globalisation might corrupt social values which underpin society and over-value economics and material gain. However, given the current socialist model of society and economy in China, globalisation may not necessarily be a destabilising force, and the history of business in China in the last two decades certainly suggests that the country and its industry has taken full advantage of the opportunities globalisation presents (Mamman and Liu, 2008; Parker, 2005). Mamman and Liu (2008) carried out research in individual views and responses to globalisation in China, and found that â€Å"respondents view globalization from economic perspective rather than from cultural convergence or political convergence perspective.† (p 32). This suggests that globalisation is most significant to industry and business for Chinese women in business. Mamman and Liu (2008) also state that their respondents viewed globalisation as a product of capitalism: â€Å"they view globalization not only as economic activities but as a philosophical and ideological (not cultural) shift in the way the world conducts economic activities† P 32). This research suggests that globalisation is not part of a potential package of cultural barriers to women business or organisation leaders in China. But Child (2002) does underline the potential cultural conflicts which might challenge women in responding to global business markets, if they have not really had the appropriate training, experience or support during their business or organisational careers. Yet, it may be that many women who wish to assume leadership positions in China are not challenged by global forces or by potential cultural differences, simply because they take a pragmatic view of business and leadership. For these, globalisation might erode barriers to them achieving such roles (Dunning, 2003; Fiss and Hirsch, 2005). Understanding the global context however, is possible from international literature. Beck and Davis (2005) cite the case of a financial organisation Australia that was attempting to increase the numbers of women at managerial level. This organisation had to overcome not only attitudinal barriers but personal barriers (Beck and Davis, 2005). Bahry and Marr, (2005) discuss the social and ideological shifts which have changed women’s roles and status in Quatar, such that they may be becoming more endowed with the capacity to take on leadership roles. However, Singh and Vinnicombe (2004) show that it is still the norm that masculine senior level managers and boards maintain their hegemonic status: â€Å"Evidence shows that senior women do not easily gain access to the boardroom, where an elite group of male directors maintain their power† (Singh and Vinnicombe, 2004 p 479). If Chinese businesses are being significantly affected by Westernised business practices, there is the potential that these practices present more barriers to women taking on senior leadership positions, rather than helped to change entrenched cultural values which have been seen as inherent in Chinese business practice. Gobalisation may therefore be viewed as a source of new hurdles and obstacles to be surmounted for women in China. These barriers include what are described as ‘informal’ or ‘hidden’ processes associated with senior promotion (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1995), a relative lack of appropriate and available career development routes and activities (Ragins et al, 1998), and, the more obvious barrier, the lower levels of pay allocated to women (Oakley, 2000). There are also behavioural and cultural barriers, which include the gender role stereotyping of leadership capability (Schein and Muller, 2002), communication styles which reflect gendered differences (Tannen, 1994), and the social exclusion, corporate cultural norms, entrenched power dynamics and old boys’ networks which characterise British and American businesses (Ragins Sundstrom, 1989). It can be seen that while there may be similarities in Chinese businesses in terms of barriers which emerge from traditional business norms and behaviours, there may be others which could be derived from the businesses they are exposed to in the Global marketplace. Therefore, Chinese women may find themselves having to face and adapt to more or different challenges to ascending the corporate or organisational ladder. Personal Capabilities Other factors which may affect women’s career success at senior level is a perception that they are not capable of leading businesses as well as men (Cooke, 2004; Kalleberg and Leicht, 2005; Fischlmayr, 2002), and the women being faced with competing family demands, particularly from children (Beatty, 1996). This is not necessarily the case in China, however, because it has become the cultural norm for women to work full time, even after having had children, and women do not take career breaks to have children, a fact which is facilitated by the one-child rule (Cooke, 2004). Women may be viewed however in terms of their gender and this will likely affect not only perceptions of their effectiveness as leaders, but evaluations of their success as well (Gunkel et al, 2007; Gutek, 1985; Fondas, 1997). Ryan and Haslam (2005) suggest that when traditional masculi